Earthquakes can happen and change people’s lives within seconds. So you can prepare yourself and your family members by planning ahead. You also need to know what to do during an earthquake so you don’t panic during an emergency situation.
The first step for preparation is to know where all gas electric, and water shut off values are. Second you should always have an evacuation plan that includes a normal and an emergency exit route that your whole family has practiced. Also a very important thing to have prepared is an emergency kit that should include one gallon of stored water and enough food for all family members. For instance nonperishable foods like peanut butter, nuts, vitamins, and dried fruit. Other important things to include in your kit are sterile adhesive bandages and scissors and any prescription needed for each family member. It is also very important to have extra clothes ready. Like a pair of sturdy shoes, rain gear, hat, gloves, and thermal underwear last blankets or sleeping bags. Also a very important thing is if you have any pets you should have food stored for them as well as an identification tag on there collar so they can be returned to you if they get lost.
Many people don’t know what to do during an earthquake. The most important thing to do is to drop to the ground and take cover under something heavy like ducking under sturdy desks or crouch in a doorway with a blanket covering you. But you also need to stay away from windows, bookcases, file cabinets, heavy mirrors, hanging plants, and other heavy objects that could fall. Studies have shown that most injuries occur when people try to move during an earthquake. So always stay put once the earthquake has started.
So if you live in an area where you are at risk make sure you have an evacuation exit plan in case of an emergency also an emergency kit including all the important items. (ML3)
Thursday, March 13, 2008
Formation of Himalayas
The Himalayan Mountain Range began being formed over 70 million years ago. However, this mountain range is among the youngest mountain formations on this planet. This magnificent mountain range was formed because of a huge force and land collision which caused this part of the Earth to rise. It had to go somewhere. The incredible forces that collided creating this masterpiece are called the Indo-Australian Plate from the south and the Eurasian Plate which is Europe and Asia. These Himalayan Mountains are still rising today.
The great Himalayan Mountain is still rising as we speak and will continue to. The Indo-Australian Plate and the Eurasian Plate are still colliding. Before they collided, the Indo-Australian Plate was moving at Eurasian Plate at a rate of about 15cm/year. After the collision, it slowed to a rate of about 67mm/year and today is still moving as we speak. In scientific studies, the Himalayan Mountains rise at a rate of approximately 5mm/year making them geologically active. Studies have also shown that over a time period of the next 10 million years the Indian land mass will have traveled 1,500km. into Asia. The movement of the Indian plate into the Asian plate makes this region seismically active, leading to earthquakes from time to time. This piece of vital information also plays a part in the formation of the Himalayan Mountain Range.
There are many things that have played an important role in the formation of the Himalayans. The collision that caused this had a giant load of force pushing together plates causing the land around it to rise. The seismic activity, wind and erosion were just a few of the minor reasons why the Himalayans formed and there are others also. In Conclusion, the Indo-Australian and Eurasian Plates were the plates that were the main reason why the Himalayan Mountain Range exists today and why they continue to move and increase the size of the incredible mountain range.
The great Himalayan Mountain is still rising as we speak and will continue to. The Indo-Australian Plate and the Eurasian Plate are still colliding. Before they collided, the Indo-Australian Plate was moving at Eurasian Plate at a rate of about 15cm/year. After the collision, it slowed to a rate of about 67mm/year and today is still moving as we speak. In scientific studies, the Himalayan Mountains rise at a rate of approximately 5mm/year making them geologically active. Studies have also shown that over a time period of the next 10 million years the Indian land mass will have traveled 1,500km. into Asia. The movement of the Indian plate into the Asian plate makes this region seismically active, leading to earthquakes from time to time. This piece of vital information also plays a part in the formation of the Himalayan Mountain Range.
There are many things that have played an important role in the formation of the Himalayans. The collision that caused this had a giant load of force pushing together plates causing the land around it to rise. The seismic activity, wind and erosion were just a few of the minor reasons why the Himalayans formed and there are others also. In Conclusion, the Indo-Australian and Eurasian Plates were the plates that were the main reason why the Himalayan Mountain Range exists today and why they continue to move and increase the size of the incredible mountain range.
A Journey To The Center Of The Earth
The earth consists of four layers, the crust, mantle, outer core and inner core. The crust is the outermost layer, which is made of rock (Basalts and Granite). Under the continents the crust is around twenty-five miles thick and under the ocean it is three to five miles thick (five to forty km). The crust is much thinner than any of the other layers, and is made of calcium, sodium and aluminum. Being sort of cold, the crust is rocky and brittle so it can fracture very easily in earthquakes. The lithosphere or the crust and the upper part of the mantle are cool and rigid. Next you reach the mantle. The asthenosphere is hot, partially melted and very slow flowing, and is located at the upper part of the mantle. The mantle flows consistency of asphalt. The mantle (the thickest of the layers) is eighteen hundred miles thick (two thousand eight hundred and eighty-five km). Next you reach the outer core, which is fourteen hundred miles thick (twenty-two hundred mile thick). The outer core is made of iron and nickel in the liquid state. The inner core consists of iron and nickel in the solid state. The inner core is around eight hundred mile thick (one thousand two hundred and sixteen km). The core is mostly iron and is so hot that the outer core is molted, with about 10% sulfur. The inner core is under so much pressure that is solid. Most of the Earth’s mass is in the mantle, which is made of iron, magnesium, aluminum, silicon, and oxygen.
M.S.4
http://arnica.csustan.edu/biol1010/origins/earth.htm
http://alex.edfac.usyd.edu.au/methods/science/studentwork/massoftheearth.earthstructure.htm
http://volcano.und.edu/vwdocs/vwlessons/lessons/earths_layers/earths_layers2.html
http://www.personal.kent.edu/~dwitter/oce_f2001/lecture_notes/plate_tectl/hires/img5.htm
M.S.4
http://arnica.csustan.edu/biol1010/origins/earth.htm
http://alex.edfac.usyd.edu.au/methods/science/studentwork/massoftheearth.earthstructure.htm
http://volcano.und.edu/vwdocs/vwlessons/lessons/earths_layers/earths_layers2.html
http://www.personal.kent.edu/~dwitter/oce_f2001/lecture_notes/plate_tectl/hires/img5.htm
Tectonic Plate Movements
(CSD1)
Tectonic plates shape and move the earth in many different ways. They can stretch or pull the earth in all different directions and they are reshaping the earth very slowly.
225 million years ago all the continents were combined into one big land mass called Pangaea. They very slowly began to separate because of tectonic plates moving them. From 225 million years ago till now they have been moving slowly each year because of tectonic plates separating or colliding.
There are 3 types of collisions, Continental-Continental collisions, Continental-Oceanic collisions, and Oceanic-Oceanic collisions. When two Continental plates collide they buckle and thicken which pushes the continental crust upward. When a Continental and an Oceanic plate collide the denser oceanic crust sinks into the asthenosphere. And finally when two Oceanic plates collide one of the plates with oceanic lithosphere is subducted or sinks, under the other plate.
Tectonic plates can cause many diffrent types of stress and faults. Some types of stress are compression, tension, and shearing. Compression is when two plates are pushing together. Tension is where two plates separate. And shearing is when two plates are moving past each other. Some types of faults are normal, thrust, strike-skip, and reverse.
The continents are where they are today because of tectonic plates moving and reshaping the earth. The ground we live on today is always changing and forming new things.
Tectonic plates shape and move the earth in many different ways. They can stretch or pull the earth in all different directions and they are reshaping the earth very slowly.
225 million years ago all the continents were combined into one big land mass called Pangaea. They very slowly began to separate because of tectonic plates moving them. From 225 million years ago till now they have been moving slowly each year because of tectonic plates separating or colliding.
There are 3 types of collisions, Continental-Continental collisions, Continental-Oceanic collisions, and Oceanic-Oceanic collisions. When two Continental plates collide they buckle and thicken which pushes the continental crust upward. When a Continental and an Oceanic plate collide the denser oceanic crust sinks into the asthenosphere. And finally when two Oceanic plates collide one of the plates with oceanic lithosphere is subducted or sinks, under the other plate.
Tectonic plates can cause many diffrent types of stress and faults. Some types of stress are compression, tension, and shearing. Compression is when two plates are pushing together. Tension is where two plates separate. And shearing is when two plates are moving past each other. Some types of faults are normal, thrust, strike-skip, and reverse.
The continents are where they are today because of tectonic plates moving and reshaping the earth. The ground we live on today is always changing and forming new things.
Richter v.s. Mercalli
Richter and the Mercalli scale are two different ways to measure earthquake eruptions.
The Richter scale, the “Scale of Magnitude” was invented by Charles Richter in 1932. He developed his own scale based on the amount of energy. Every magnitude the earthquake goes up it is times ten. For example, if the waves were at five, and if went up to six, it would be ten times higher. The Richter uses regular numbers for its scale.
Earthquake Magnitude Scale
Magnitude
Earthquake Effects
Estimated NumberEach Year
2.5 or less
Usually not felt, but can be recorded by seismograph.
900,000
2.5 to 5.4
Often felt, but only causes minor damage.
30,000
5.5 to 6.0
Slight damage to buildings and other structures.
500
6.1 to 6.9
May cause a lot of damage in very populated areas.
100
7.0 to 7.9
Major earthquake. Serious damage.
20
8.0 or greater
Great earthquake. Can totally destroy communities near the epicenter.
One every 5 to 10 years
Earthquake Magnitude Classes
Earthquakes are also classified in categories ranging from minor to great, depending on their magnitude.
Class
Magnitude
Great
8 or more
Major
7 - 7.9
Strong
6 - 6.9
Moderate
5 - 5.9
Light
4 - 4.9
Minor
3 -3.9
The Mercalli scale, the “Scale of Intensity” is a modified scale. This Was Invented by Giuseppe Mercalli in 1902. In my opinion this is an easier to read and work with. This scale doesn’t use numbers they use numeral numbers.
Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale
Mercalli Intensity
Equivalent Richter Magnitude
Witness Observations
I
1.0 to 2.0
Felt by very few people; barely noticeable.
II
2.0 to 3.0
Felt by a few people, especially on upper floors.
III
3.0 to 4.0
Noticeable indoors, especially on upper floors, but may not be recognized as an earthquake.
IV
4.0
Felt by many indoors, few outdoors. May feel like heavy truck passing by.
V
4.0 to 5.0
Felt by almost everyone, some people awakened. Small objects moved. Trees and poles may shake.
VI
5.0 to 6.0
Felt by everyone. Difficult to stand. Some heavy furniture moved, some plaster falls. Chimneys may be slightly damaged.
VII
6.0
Slight to moderate damage in well built, ordinary structures. Considerable damage to poorly built structures. Some walls may fall.
VIII
6.0 to 7.0
Little damage in specially built structures. Considerable damage to ordinary buildings, severe damage to poorly built structures. Some walls collapse.
IX
7.0
Considerable damage to specially built structures, buildings shifted off foundations. Ground cracked noticeably. Wholesale destruction. Landslides.
X
7.0 to 8.0
Most masonry and frame structures and their foundations destroyed. Ground badly cracked. Landslides. Wholesale destruction.
XI
8.0
Total damage. Few, if any, structures standing. Bridges destroyed. Wide cracks in ground. Waves seen on ground.
XII
8.0 or greater
Total damage. Waves seen on ground. Objects thrown up into air.
DJB 3
http://www.geo.mtu.edu/UPSeis/intensity.html
The Richter scale, the “Scale of Magnitude” was invented by Charles Richter in 1932. He developed his own scale based on the amount of energy. Every magnitude the earthquake goes up it is times ten. For example, if the waves were at five, and if went up to six, it would be ten times higher. The Richter uses regular numbers for its scale.
Earthquake Magnitude Scale
Magnitude
Earthquake Effects
Estimated NumberEach Year
2.5 or less
Usually not felt, but can be recorded by seismograph.
900,000
2.5 to 5.4
Often felt, but only causes minor damage.
30,000
5.5 to 6.0
Slight damage to buildings and other structures.
500
6.1 to 6.9
May cause a lot of damage in very populated areas.
100
7.0 to 7.9
Major earthquake. Serious damage.
20
8.0 or greater
Great earthquake. Can totally destroy communities near the epicenter.
One every 5 to 10 years
Earthquake Magnitude Classes
Earthquakes are also classified in categories ranging from minor to great, depending on their magnitude.
Class
Magnitude
Great
8 or more
Major
7 - 7.9
Strong
6 - 6.9
Moderate
5 - 5.9
Light
4 - 4.9
Minor
3 -3.9
The Mercalli scale, the “Scale of Intensity” is a modified scale. This Was Invented by Giuseppe Mercalli in 1902. In my opinion this is an easier to read and work with. This scale doesn’t use numbers they use numeral numbers.
Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale
Mercalli Intensity
Equivalent Richter Magnitude
Witness Observations
I
1.0 to 2.0
Felt by very few people; barely noticeable.
II
2.0 to 3.0
Felt by a few people, especially on upper floors.
III
3.0 to 4.0
Noticeable indoors, especially on upper floors, but may not be recognized as an earthquake.
IV
4.0
Felt by many indoors, few outdoors. May feel like heavy truck passing by.
V
4.0 to 5.0
Felt by almost everyone, some people awakened. Small objects moved. Trees and poles may shake.
VI
5.0 to 6.0
Felt by everyone. Difficult to stand. Some heavy furniture moved, some plaster falls. Chimneys may be slightly damaged.
VII
6.0
Slight to moderate damage in well built, ordinary structures. Considerable damage to poorly built structures. Some walls may fall.
VIII
6.0 to 7.0
Little damage in specially built structures. Considerable damage to ordinary buildings, severe damage to poorly built structures. Some walls collapse.
IX
7.0
Considerable damage to specially built structures, buildings shifted off foundations. Ground cracked noticeably. Wholesale destruction. Landslides.
X
7.0 to 8.0
Most masonry and frame structures and their foundations destroyed. Ground badly cracked. Landslides. Wholesale destruction.
XI
8.0
Total damage. Few, if any, structures standing. Bridges destroyed. Wide cracks in ground. Waves seen on ground.
XII
8.0 or greater
Total damage. Waves seen on ground. Objects thrown up into air.
DJB 3
http://www.geo.mtu.edu/UPSeis/intensity.html
LAHARS
A lahar is a deadly kind of volcanic mudflow. Here are specific details about what a lahar is, and about how dangerous, and deadly they can be. A lahar is composed of pyroclastic material and water. Lahars have the consistency of concrete: fluid when moving, then solid when stopped. Lahars can be extremely dangerous, because of their energy and speed. The force of a lahar is so big that buildings and valuable land may become partially or completely buried by one or more cement-like layers of rock debris. One of the greatest volcanic hazards is lahars. They can destroy by direct impact, lead to increased deposition of sediment, block tributary streams, and bury valleys and communities with debris. A lahar can be huge. The Osceola lahar produced 5,600 years ago by Mount Rainier in WA produced a wall of mud 140 meters (460ft.) deep in the White River Canyon and extends over on area of over 330sq. km. (130sq. mi.). Eruptions may trigger one lahars, by quickly melting snow and ice on a volcano or ejecting water from a crater lake. During subsequent rainy seasons, swollen rivers will erode the new deposits and sometimes generate lahars that are dangerous to people downstream. Even if no lahars occur, the erosion can lead to frequent floods because of the deposition of sediment along the river channels. People caught in the path of a lahar have a high risk of death from severe crush injuries, drowning or asphyxiation.
Mudflow (lahar) Deaths
| Deaths | Volcano | When |
| 25,000 | Ruiz, | 1985 |
| 5,110 | | 1919 |
| 4,011 | | 1882 |
| 3,500 | | 1631 |
| 1,200 | | 1814 |
| 1,000 | | 1877 |
| 700 | Ruiz, | 1845 |
That is what a lahar is, and how it can be dangerous and deadly.
Ready To Erupt?
Volcanoes are pretty difficult and expensive to predict ahead of time. But there are little clues to help scientists determine approximately when it’s going to erupt, and when to evacuate the surrounding people.
Even though it’s pretty hard to predict the exact time for an eruption, scientists can still tell if it’s coming by little clues that the mountain itself gradually begins to show. First, the scientists determine if the volcano has been active in the past, if it has it’s called an active volcano. The likeliness of it erupting is higher when the volcano is active. Then they observe the ground on and around the volcano, and see if there is any deformation. If there is any deformation, that means that the volcano is swelling and inflating from the magma, and the eruption is getting closer every minute. A form of deformation may be a dome that began to form that was never there before.
Scientists also examine the surrounding rocks around the volcano and see if there are any specific/chemical changes in them. They also check the magma movement, and if it releases different gases to signify an upcoming eruption. Seismographs are placed on and around the volcano to check for small earthquakes that the volcano is giving off from pressure. This may conclude that the volcano is coming because earthquakes may start some volcanoes. Changes in the temperature all around gets hotter by a few degrees, usually it’s not noticed by everybody though. The ground water temperature also gets higher in the ground all around from the volcano’s heat.
When all these signs change really significantly, then it’s time for the surrounding people to evacuate. It’s really hard to tell when exactly the volcano is coming, but by the signs that the volcano is showing, it’s important to get the people out sooner than later.
by:np 4
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)